The Challenge: Government does what private sector
can’t or won’t do
National defense, law enforcement, criminal justice, emergency
response
Why Public
Organizations Are Different
Unique Pressures They Face
Multiple Bottom Lines: Efficiency + equity +
legality + political feasibility Public Scrutiny:
Every decision is potentially front-page news Political Interference: Electoral cycles
vs. long-term planning Diverse Stakeholders: Elected
officials, interest groups, media, citizens Limited
Authority: Can only do what law permits Resource
Constraints: Budgets set by others, can’t easily raise
revenue
Three Fundamental
Organizational Values
The Eternal Tension
Neutral Competence: Professional, non-partisan
expertise Executive Leadership: Responsive to elected
leadership Representativeness: Responsive to diverse
community interests
The Problem: These three values often conflict
with each other
Value 1: Neutral Competence
“Just the Facts, Ma’am”
The Ideal:
Professional expertise guides decisions
Consistent application of rules and procedures
Insulated from political pressure and favoritism
Merit-based hiring and promotion
Criminal Justice Examples:
FBI investigations follow evidence, not political preferences
Crime lab results based on science, not desired outcomes
Court decisions based on law, not political pressure
Neutral Competence:
Benefits and Problems
Benefits:
Consistent, predictable decisions
Professional expertise and standards
Reduced corruption and favoritism
Public trust in institutional integrity
Problems:
Can become rigid and unresponsive
Professional values may conflict with public preferences
Expertise can become elitism
May resist legitimate political direction
Example: Police officers trained in constitutional
law vs. community demands for aggressive enforcement
Value 2: Executive
Leadership
“Elections Have
Consequences”
The Ideal:
Organizations respond to elected leadership
Political appointees translate voter preferences into action
Clear accountability through electoral process
Ability to change direction with new leadership
Criminal Justice Examples:
New mayor changes police chief and policing priorities
New prosecutor emphasizes different types of crimes
New corrections director shifts from punishment to
rehabilitation
Executive
Leadership: Benefits and Problems
Benefits:
Democratic accountability and responsiveness
Ability to implement new policies and priorities
Clear lines of authority and responsibility
Reflects will of voters
Problems:
Short-term thinking due to electoral cycles
Frequent turnover disrupts continuity
Political loyalty may conflict with professional judgment
Partisan interference in professional decisions
Example: Pressure on prosecutors to pursue
politically popular cases vs. prosecutorial discretion based on
evidence
Value 3: Representativeness
“Government by the People”
The Ideal:
Organizations reflect community diversity
Responsive to various stakeholder groups
Multiple access points for citizen input
Decisions consider all affected parties
Criminal Justice Examples:
Police departments reflecting community demographics
Community policing councils and oversight boards
Victim impact statements in sentencing
Citizen review of police misconduct cases
Representativeness:
Benefits and Problems
Benefits:
Increased legitimacy and public trust
Better understanding of community needs
More creative solutions through diverse perspectives
Reduced bias in decision-making
Problems:
Slow decision-making due to consultation requirements
Conflicting demands from different groups
May compromise professional standards
Risk of capture by special interests
Example: Balancing community demands for
aggressive policing with civil rights concerns
The Impossible Triangle
Why Organizations Struggle
You can’t maximize all three values
simultaneously:
More neutral competence = less political responsiveness
More executive leadership = less representativeness
More representativeness = less neutral competence
Real Example: Police reform efforts must
balance:
Professional law enforcement standards (neutral competence)
When
the Left Hand Doesn’t Know What the Right Hand Is Doing
Common Coordination Failures:
Different agencies with overlapping missions
Information not shared between organizations
Conflicting procedures and requirements
Turf battles and resource competition
Criminal Justice Example: Drug enforcement
involving DEA, state police, local police, prosecutors, courts,
corrections - all with different priorities and procedures
Public Acceptance: Community trusts and supports
the organization Adaptability: Can change with new
challenges and circumstances Consistency: Treats
similar cases similarly Professional Competence:
Skilled staff using best practices Diversity:
Reflects and understands the community served
Accountability: Answers to appropriate
authorities
Effectiveness in Criminal
Justice
Police Department Example:
Public Acceptance: Community supports and
cooperates with police
Adaptability: Adjusts tactics as crime patterns
change
Consistency: Applies laws fairly across all
neighborhoods
Competence: Well-trained officers using proven
strategies
Diversity: Officers reflect community
demographics
Accountability: Responsive to oversight and
complaints
Question: How do you measure success when goals
conflict?
The Staff Problem
Different Types of
Organizational Support
Core Staff: Direct mission delivery
Example: Patrol officers, detectives, prosecutors
Auxiliary Staff: Support core mission
Example: Police training division, court
administration
Reality Check: Structure changes are easier than
culture changes
Digital Era Challenges
New Problems for Old
Organizations
Technology Disruption:
AI and predictive policing capabilities
Social media and public transparency demands
Cybersecurity and digital evidence challenges
Remote work and virtual court proceedings
Organizational Impacts:
Need for new skills and training
Changed citizen expectations
Different accountability mechanisms
Blurred organizational boundaries
Contemporary
Organizational Problems
What Keeps Managers Awake
at Night
Workforce Challenges:
Recruiting and retaining qualified staff
Managing multi-generational workforce
Building diverse and inclusive organizations
Developing leadership pipelines
External Pressures:
24/7 news cycle and social media scrutiny
Increased demands for transparency and accountability
Budget constraints and resource competition
Political polarization and partisanship
Case Study: Police Reform
Efforts
All Three Values in
Conflict
Neutral Competence Demands:
Evidence-based policing strategies
Constitutional law compliance
Professional training standards
Executive Leadership Demands:
Implement mayor’s campaign promises
Respond to council directives
Address political pressure
Representativeness Demands:
Community input on policies
Diverse hiring and promotion
Neighborhood-specific approaches
Question: How do you balance these competing
demands?
Strategies for Better
Organizations
What Actually Works
Clear Mission and Goals: Everyone understands the
purpose Strong Leadership: At all levels, not just
the top Good Information Systems: Data for
decision-making Adequate Resources: Match funding to
expectations Continuous Learning: Adapt based on
experience Stakeholder Engagement: Include affected
parties in decisions
Most Important: Recognize that trade-offs are
inevitable
The Realist’s Approach
Managing Organizational
Problems
Accept Reality:
Perfect organizations don’t exist
All solutions create new problems
Trade-offs are inevitable
Politics is part of the job
Focus on Improvement:
Identify biggest problems first
Build coalitions for change
Start with pilot programs
Measure and adjust
Maintain Perspective:
Small improvements matter
Change takes time
Relationships are crucial
Mission comes first
Future Organizational
Challenges
What’s Coming
Network Governance: Organizations working across
boundaries Performance Management: Results-based
accountability Citizen Engagement: Technology-enabled
participation Evidence-Based Practice: Using research
to improve operations Equity and Inclusion: Ensuring
fair access and treatment
Your Role: Future leaders who can navigate these
challenges
Discussion Questions
Thinking About Your Future Workplace:
Which of the three values (neutral competence, executive
leadership, representativeness) do you think is most important?
Why?
How would you handle a situation where professional judgment
conflicts with political direction?
What strategies would you use to improve coordination between
agencies?
How can organizations maintain effectiveness while being
responsive to diverse stakeholders?
Module 4-2 Summary
Key Takeaways:
All organizations have problems - the goal is managing them
effectively
Three fundamental values often conflict with each other
Coordination problems are common and difficult to solve
Reorganization is often attempted but rarely solves underlying
problems
Digital era creates new challenges and opportunities
Effective organizations balance competing demands while
maintaining focus on mission
Future leaders need skills in managing networks, not just
hierarchies
Next: Examining human capital and personnel
management in public organizations